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Pinealon

Gray market

Checked · 25 sources · 9 corrections on this page · No vendors · No affiliates · No one buys a word of it

3 human pilot studies

Limited Human Data · Russian-language · usually with Vesugen · none placebo-controlled

Gray market · No FDA ruling — not on any list

Sold as a research chemical. Some clinics and pharmacies still supply it; that’s their risk, not a change in the rule.

Bottom line

A small Khavinson tripeptide whose nucleus-entry story rests on the group's own cell and computer studies (Khavinson et al., J Neurol Neurosci 2017; Pharmaceuticals 2021). Still missing Western Phase 2/3 trials.

Also called
  • EDR tripeptide
  • Glu-Asp-Arg
  • Cortexin-derived short peptide
  • brain bioregulator
Category
Peptide — Khavinson Brain Tripeptide Bioregulator
Molecular Weight
418.4 Da
Sequence
3 aa (Glu-Asp-Arg)
Half-life
Short plasma; tissue-penetrant
Route (studied)
Not stated in its studies
Route (sold)
Powder vials for SubQ, nasal or oral use (research chemical)
FDA Status
Not approved
Origin
Khavinson (from Cortexin)
Related Drug
Cortexin (approved Russia)
Primary Claim
Neuroprotection + cognitive aging
Evidence
Khavinson group; limited independent replication
Cost & Access
Research-only

Also for sleep & focus

The other four questions

What does it do? Khavinson's framework says it slips into cell nuclei and shifts which brain genes turn on (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577). In Alzheimer's-model mice, and in neurons from Huntington's-model mice, it restored the density of dendritic spines, where nerve cells connect (Khavinson et al., Pharmaceuticals 2021; J Neurol Neurosci 2017).
Who uses it? Sold in Russia as a dietary supplement; Russian reports describe it given to people with old brain injuries and to older adults (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577). Online guides pair it with Epitalon.
Does the evidence hold up? Its human studies are a few Russian reports (Bashkireva & Artamonova, 2012; Meshchaninov et al., 2015; Myakotnykh et al., 2016). A 2021 Alzheimer's mouse-model paper from the Khavinson group is the modern anchor (Khavinson et al., Pharmaceuticals 2021). No Western randomized trials, and no study from outside Russia was found.
Bottom line? A small Khavinson tripeptide whose nucleus-entry story rests on the group's own cell and computer studies (Khavinson et al., J Neurol Neurosci 2017; Pharmaceuticals 2021). Still missing Western Phase 2/3 trials.

Dosing from the Literature

Published for the brain: 1 µg to 5 mg injected once a day for 10 days, in adults with old brain injuries, in the developers' patent; the Russian capsule label gives capsules, not a peptide dose. Not published: a randomized trial in a medical journal.

ProtocolDoseFrequencyNotes
Intramuscular injection1 µg, 10 µg or 5 mgOnce daily for 10 daysDevelopers' patent: a study of 25 adults aged 31–60 with after-effects of brain injury 1–10 years earlier, randomly split into peptide and saline groups; 5 mg for the most severe after-effects, 10 µg for moderate, 1 µg for mild (Khavinson et al., US patent 8,524,674)
Oral capsules (Russian supplement)1–2 capsules1–2 times a day with meals, for 10–30 days; repeat course after 4–6 monthsRussian product labeling; it does not state how much peptide a capsule holds
Intraperitoneal injection (mice)400 µg/kgOnce daily for 2 monthsIn 5xFAD Alzheimer's-model mice (Khavinson et al., Pharmaceuticals 2021; PMID 34071923)
Dosing Disclaimer

Pinealon has no labeled human dose under any pharmaceutical regulatory system. The human doses above come from the developers' patent and a Russian supplement label, not from a trial published in a medical journal.

→ Calculator — vial-to-syringe math

What It Is

Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide (a chain of 3 amino acids) with the amino acid sequence Glu-Asp-Arg (EDR). It is one of the Khavinson "brain bioregulators" in the same family as Epithalon (AEDG, pineal/longevity) — developed by Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology over the period 1990 to present. Specifically, Pinealon's EDR sequence was identified by fractionating Cortexin, a polypeptide neuroprotective drug derived from bovine cerebral cortex that has been clinically used in Russia and Eastern Europe for decades in the management of stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive decline, and epilepsy. Khavinson's group identified EDR as one of the shortest and most biologically active peptide sequences within Cortexin responsible for its neuroprotective phenotype.

What makes Pinealon unusual mechanistically is its small size — at 418 Da, it is small enough to cross cellular and nuclear membranes directly, which is uncommon for peptides (most require specific transport mechanisms or receptor binding). The proposed mechanism is that Pinealon translocates into the cell nucleus and modulates gene expression through direct interaction with nucleic acids and chromatin-associated proteins. This is the same framework Khavinson applies to Epithalon, Thymalin, and the other short peptide bioregulators — short peptides as "signal molecules" that modulate tissue-specific gene expression programs. The mechanistic hypothesis is unusual in mainstream molecular biology, but in-vitro support for nuclear translocation of fluorescence-labeled Pinealon has been published.

Pinealon's positioning in the Khavinson framework is as the "brain" bioregulator — the peptide whose tissue of origin (cerebral cortex via Cortexin) matches its proposed therapeutic targeting. Clinical use in Russia has centered on elderly cognitive decline, post-TBI cognitive recovery, stroke recovery, and general neuroprotection during aging.

In the Kalios context, Pinealon sits in the same category as Epithalon and the other Khavinson peptides: substantial Russian clinical use over 20+ years, a mechanistically coherent but unusual molecular framework, and a significant evidence gap in Western-methodology replication. As of April 2026, there are no FDA-regulated Phase 3 trials of Pinealon. Online guides pair it with Epithalon, and one seller bundles it with Semax and Selank.

Who Khavinson was, and what his record supports →

Mechanism of Action

The Khavinson group proposes that Pinealon works by entering cells and changing which genes they express, and ties its reported protective effects on nerve cells to that (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).

  • Direct nuclear translocation — The group proposes that short peptides of 2–7 amino acids, such as Pinealon (418 Da), can enter the cell nucleus (Khavinson et al., Molecules 2021; PMID 34834147). In a test it cites, fluorescence-labeled Pinealon entered the nucleus of HeLa cells, a human cell line (Khavinson et al., J Neurol Neurosci 2017).
  • Gene expression modulation — The group proposes that Pinealon binds specific DNA sequences in gene promoters; in its computer docking, EDR fit sites in the promoters of genes such as CASP3, GAP43, APOE, SOD2, PPARA and PPARG (Khavinson et al., Pharmaceuticals 2021; PMID 34071923). The DNA-binding evidence is the group's own computer models and test-tube work with DNA (Khavinson et al., J Neurol Neurosci 2017).
  • Anti-apoptotic signaling — In old rats exposed to acute hypoxia, Pinealon kept caspase-3, an enzyme of programmed cell death (apoptosis), from rising in brain neurons; in another rat study it raised caspase-3 activity in parts of the old brain (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).
  • Antioxidant pathway activation — In hypoxia-sensitive rats, Pinealon raised the activity of the antioxidant enzymes SOD2 and GPx1 in the brain to the level of hypoxia-resistant rats; in rat cerebellar neurons in culture it lowered reactive oxygen species and cell death under oxidative stress (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).
  • Cognitive / synaptic function — In young and old rats, Pinealon improved learning in a water maze (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).
  • Alzheimer's disease model effects (Khavinson et al., Pharmaceuticals 2021; 14(6):515) — In 5xFAD Alzheimer's-model mice, two months of daily EDR injections restored the density of dendritic spines on hippocampal neurons to the level of control mice; a gain in long-term potentiation, a lab measure of synaptic strengthening, did not reach significance. The paper reports no memory or behavior test and no measure of cell death.
  • Huntington's model data (Khavinson et al., J Neurol Neurosci 2017) — In neurons cultured from Huntington's-model (YAC128) mice, EDR restored dendritic-spine density to the level of normal mice, in a test of seven neurons per group.
  • Serotonin — In rat cortex neurons in culture, Pinealon increased serotonin synthesis (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).
  • Prenatal neuroprotection — In rats, Pinealon normalized nervous-system function in offspring exposed to high homocysteine before birth, and lowered free radicals in neurons of offspring of rats exposed to hypoxia (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).
  • Inflammatory cells — In neutrophils (white blood cells) activated in culture, Pinealon reduced the production of reactive oxygen species (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).
  • Pleiotropic (having many effects at once) vs single-target — The group proposes that Pinealon acts on many genes and proteins at once, among them MAPK/ERK signaling, caspase-3, p53, SOD2, GPX1, PPARA, PPARG and serotonin (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577).

What the Research Shows

Pinealon's evidence base is concentrated in the Khavinson lab and modestly replicated in a handful of independent labs, consistent with the pattern of the other Khavinson peptides.

  • EDR peptide Alzheimer's mechanism (Khavinson et al., Pharmaceuticals 2021; 14(6):515; PMID 34071923) — Flagship modern publication. "Neuroprotective Effects of Tripeptides-Epigenetic Regulators in Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease." EDR (Pinealon) tested alongside related tripeptides in AD mouse model.
  • EDR gene expression / Alzheimer's (Khavinson et al., PMC7795577) — Mechanistic paper linking Pinealon's gene-modulation framework to AD pathology.
  • Huntington's disease model (Khavinson, Lin'kova, Kukanova, 2017) — Neuroprotective effect of EDR peptide in mouse model of Huntington's disease.
  • Hypoxia tolerance (Khavinson et al., Bull Exp Biol Med) — Multiple papers describing Pinealon's effect in hypoxia models at cellular and whole-animal level.
  • Oxidative stress protection — Consistent preclinical data across cell culture and animal models.
  • Aged-brain cognitive studies — Russian clinical reports in elderly populations with mild cognitive decline, stroke recovery, and traumatic brain injury consequences.
  • Small Russian human studies (2012–2016) — Open studies in Russian-language journals give Pinealon, usually with Vesugen, to working adults and older people with brain-related complaints, and report better psychoemotional scores and biological-age markers (Bashkireva & Artamonova, 2012; Meshchaninov et al., 2015; Myakotnykh et al., 2016). None is placebo-controlled. See Human Data.
  • Cortexin pharmacology (parent context) — Parent Cortexin drug has been used in Russian clinical practice for decades for neurological conditions; Pinealon's mechanism is positioned as the "active short-peptide" component of that broader Cortexin pharmacology.
  • Comprehensive Khavinson reviews — Multiple Khavinson-authored reviews place Pinealon within the broader bioregulator framework, providing context alongside Epithalon, Thymalin, and related peptides.
  • Independent replication gap — As with other Khavinson peptides, independent-lab replication of the gene-expression and direct DNA-binding framework is limited. Mainstream molecular biology has not widely endorsed the short-peptide-direct-DNA-binding mechanism.
  • No Phase 2/3 Western RCT — The evidence gap that separates Pinealon from approved Western neuroprotective drugs.
Honest Evidence Framing

Pinealon has a coherent Khavinson-framework preclinical evidence base and accumulated Russian clinical experience. It does not have Western Phase 2 or Phase 3 RCT validation. Independent laboratory replication of the gene-expression mechanism is limited. Safety data are few (see Side Effects); efficacy evidence is concentrated in the originating research group with characteristic methodological limitations (publication in predominantly Russian-language journals, open-label designs, single-group authorship).

Human Data

Human evidence for Pinealon, as indexed in PubMed:

  • Lorry drivers with neurotic and stress-related complaints (Bashkireva & Artamonova, Adv Gerontol 2012; PMID 23734521) — A study of 150 lorry drivers and 150 metal craftsmen found more psychoadaptive disorders among the drivers. Bioregulating peptides were reported to restore adaptive capacity and improve psychoemotional indices, with the best effect from Pinealon and Vesugen together. The abstract does not give group sizes for the peptide courses or a placebo arm.
  • Adults with organic brain syndrome (Meshchaninov et al., Adv Gerontol 2015; PMID 26390612) — 32 people aged 41–83 with several chronic illnesses and organic brain syndrome in remission took Pinealon or Vesugen. Both were reported to improve central-nervous-system activity and biological-age indicators, Vesugen more than Pinealon; the authors also found pro-oxidant activity and a fall in CD34+ blood-forming cells.
  • Geroprotective methods compared (Myakotnykh et al., Adv Gerontol 2016; PMID 28539017) — 110 people; Vesugen and Pinealon taken together moved biological-age indicators the most of the methods compared (carbon-dioxide baths, hyperbaric oxygen, massage).
  • Not found: a 72-patient brain-injury series — Earlier versions of this page described a 72-patient Russian series in people with the after-effects of traumatic brain injury. It could not be found in PubMed or in a web search (September 30, 2026), so it is not counted here.
  • Cortexin (parent drug) clinical use — Decades of Russian clinical experience in stroke, TBI, and cognitive aging. Pinealon inherits this experiential evidence base as the proposed active short-peptide.
  • Reviews of Russian clinical use — A 2013 review describes short peptides, Pinealon among them, used in elderly and old patients (Umnov, Lin’kova & Khavinson, Adv Gerontol 2013; PMID 24738258). The individual reports on elderly cognitive decline, stroke recovery and brain-injury recovery are not indexed in PubMed and are not counted here.
  • Longevity community use — Online guides pair Pinealon with Epithalon as a longevity stack; no outcome data from that use were found.
  • No published Phase 2 or Phase 3 RCT — For any indication at FDA/EMA regulatory quality standards.
  • Clinical Medicine Russian Journal (Khavinson) — Authored reviews placing Pinealon in the broader peptide-medicine context (2022 and subsequent).

The pattern is very similar to Epithalon: extensive Russian use and an accumulated clinical experience, limited Western replication and no FDA-quality Phase 3 program. Users choosing Pinealon are implicitly accepting this evidence profile.

Reconstitution & Storage

Research-chemical sellers list Pinealon as lyophilized powder in 10 mg and 20 mg vials; the Russian supplement comes as capsules and tablets.

Vial SizeBAC WaterConcentration
10 mg1 mL10 mg/mL
10 mg2 mL5 mg/mL
20 mg2 mL10 mg/mL
  • Storage — One seller lists −20°C, away from light and moisture, for the powder; Russian product labeling lists 2–25°C, dry and away from light, with a 5-year shelf life, for the capsules.

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Side Effects & Risks

Important

Pinealon's safety data come from a few small Russian studies and the developers' own tests (below). No Pinealon study from outside Russia was found. Consult a licensed healthcare provider.

Published safety data on Pinealon are few:

  • Developers' tests — The developers' patent reports no toxic reactions after single injections of up to 5 mg/kg in mice, no side effects from daily injections of up to 1 mg/kg for 90 days in rats and 6 months in guinea pigs, and no negative effect in its 25-patient brain-injury study (Khavinson et al., US patent 8,524,674).
  • Pro-oxidant activity and blood-forming cells — In 32 people aged 41–83 given Pinealon or Vesugen, the authors found pro-oxidant activity and a fall in CD34+ blood-forming cells, which they read as inhibited blood formation (Meshchaninov et al., Adv Gerontol 2015; PMID 26390612).
  • Comparative safety — In a Russian comparison of geroprotective methods in 110 people, the peptide courses (Vesugen and Pinealon) and massage were the safest by biochemical and immune measures and clinical state (Myakotnykh et al., Adv Gerontol 2016; PMID 28539017).
  • Cancer — No study of Pinealon and cancer was found.
  • Drug interactions — No interaction study was found. Because the group reports effects on brain cells, including higher serotonin synthesis in rat neurons (Khavinson et al., 2021; PMC7795577), interactions with drugs that act on the brain are possible in theory.
  • Pregnancy / lactation — No human study; Russian product labeling lists pregnancy and breastfeeding as contraindications.
  • Purity / sourcing — Sold outside Russia as a research chemical, it is not held to drug-quality standards.
  • WADA status — Not named on the Prohibited List, but prohibited at all times under S0, non-approved substances, because no government has approved it for human therapeutic use (WADA Prohibited List 2026).
  • FDA status — Not approved; not scheduled. Research-chemical supply.

Bloodwork & Monitoring

No trial, label or guideline sets monitoring for Pinealon. The Russian human studies measured psychoemotional state by questionnaire (Bashkireva & Artamonova, Adv Gerontol 2012; PMID 23734521); biological-age indicators, pro-oxidant activity and CD34+ blood-forming cells (Meshchaninov et al., Adv Gerontol 2015; PMID 26390612); and biochemical and immune measures (Myakotnykh et al., Adv Gerontol 2016; PMID 28539017). The developers' patent measured attention with a proofreading test and brain electrical activity by EEG (Khavinson et al., US patent 8,524,674).

Commonly Stacked With

Crystagen (with it in one published study)

In a 2012 Russian study, 12 elite rhythmic gymnasts took Pinealon and Crystagen capsules, one twice a day for 20 days of each, and 8 took none; recovery heart rate after training fell in the capsule group only (Viner et al., 2012). There was no placebo, the two were not tested apart, and the paper does not say whether they were taken at the same time or one after the other (see its page).

Tested together in people: 1 study, 20 gymnasts (2012) (Viner et al., 2012) · Read the receipt →

Epithalon (AEDG)

Online guides pair Pinealon with Epithalon as a longevity stack. No study of the two given together was found.

Tested together in people: none published · Read the receipt →

Semax

An ACTH-derived Russian peptide. One seller bundles Pinealon with Semax and Selank; no study of Pinealon and Semax given together was found.

Tested together in people: none published · Read the receipt →

Selank

A tuftsin-derived Russian peptide, sold in the same seller bundle as Pinealon and Semax; no study of Pinealon and Selank given together was found.

Tested together in people: none published · Read the receipt →

Stacking this? Read the receipt →

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Legal Status

Current Status — April 2026

Pinealon is not approved by the FDA, EMA, or any major Western regulator for any indication. Its parent molecule Cortexin is approved in Russia and several Eastern European and Asian countries; Pinealon as an isolated short-peptide product is used within the Khavinson bioregulator framework rather than as a separate approved drug.

Pinealon is not currently on the FDA Category 2 Bulk Drug Substances list. Compounding availability in US 503A/503B pharmacies is not established.

Pinealon is not named on the WADA Prohibited List, but S0 prohibits at all times any substance with no current government approval for human therapeutic use (WADA Prohibited List 2026).

Pinealon is not DEA-scheduled. Community supply is through research-chemical vendors or Russian pharmacy import.

Cost & Access

Pinealon (EDR, Glu-Asp-Arg) is not approved for human use in the United States, the EU, or any major Western regulator. It is available through research suppliers for laboratory research purposes only. U.S. compounding pharmacies cannot legally compound Pinealon under current FDA bulk-substance rules — it has no FDA-approved reference product.

Research-chemical sellers list lyophilized Pinealon in 10 mg and 20 mg vials.

Parent molecule Cortexin (polypeptide complex of which Pinealon/EDR is one component) is an approved pharmaceutical in Russia and select Eastern European and Asian markets, used in Russian neurology and pediatric practice for cerebrovascular and cognitive indications. Cortexin import to the United States for personal use exists in a legal gray area; bulk import is prosecuted. Isolated Pinealon as a single-peptide product is not a commercial pharmaceutical anywhere; Russia registers it as a dietary supplement, and elsewhere it is sold as a research chemical.

Pinealon was not among the 12 peptides FDA removed from Category 2 in April 2026, and FDA’s 503A categories list, updated May 14, 2026, does not name it (FDA 503A categories list, April 22 and May 14, 2026). As a Russian-framework short peptide without a U.S. NDA sponsor, Pinealon is likely to remain in the research-only category for the foreseeable future.

Estimated availability as of April 2026. Actual costs vary by provider, location, and prescription status. Kalios does not sell compounds.

References

  1. Khavinson V, Ilina A, Kraskovskaya N, Linkova N, Kolchina N, Mikhailova N, Petukhov M. Neuroprotective Effects of Tripeptides-Epigenetic Regulators in Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2021;14(6):515. PMID: 34071923.
  2. Khavinson VKh, Kuznik BI, Tarnovskaya SI, Lin'kova NS. EDR Peptide: Possible Mechanism of Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis Regulation Involved in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2021. PMC7795577.
  3. Khavinson VKh, Lin'kova NS, Kukanova EO. Neuroprotective Effect of EDR Peptide in Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease. J Neurol Neurosci. 2017. DOI: 10.21767/2171-6625.1000166. (Khavinson group Huntington's publication.)
  4. Khavinson VKh. Peptides and Ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. PMID: 12374906. (Comprehensive Khavinson peptide framework monograph.)
  5. Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG. Peptides of pineal gland and thymus prolong human life. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003;24(3-4):233-240. PMID: 14523363.
  6. Anisimov VN, Khavinson VKh. Peptide bioregulation of aging: results and prospects. Biogerontology. 2010;11(2):139-149. PMID: 19830585.
  7. Khavinson VKh, Sibarov DA, Tsai PY, Adushkin BV, Ryzhak GA. Short peptides stimulate serotonin release and attenuate hyperexcitation in the hippocampus. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2017;163(4):539-541.
  8. Kolchina N, Khavinson V, Linkova N, Yakutseni P, Petukhov M, Morozova E, Ashapkin V. Systematic search for structural motifs of peptide binding to double-stranded DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2019;47(20):10553-10563. PMID: 31598715.
  9. Khavinson V, Popovich IG, Linkova NS, Mironova ES, Ilina AR. Peptide Regulation of Gene Expression: A Systematic Review. Molecules. 2021;26(22):7053. PMID: 34834147.
  10. Ashapkin VV, Linkova NS, Khavinson VK, Vanyushin BF. Epigenetic Mechanisms of Peptidergic Regulation of Gene Expression during Aging of Human Cells. Biochemistry (Mosc). 2015;80(3):310-322. PMID: 25761685.
  11. Khavinson VK, Popovich IG, Linkova NS, Mironova ES, Ilina AR. Peptide regulation of aging: methodology and evidence. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2022.
  12. Khavinson V, Diomede F, Mironova E, Linkova N, Trofimova S, Trubiani O, Caputi S, Sinjari B. AEDG Peptide (Epitalon) Stimulates Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis during Neurogenesis. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(2):609. PMID: 32019204.
  13. Klement GA, Hawrysh PJ, Khavinson V, Buck LT. Pinealon's effect on hypoxia tolerance in cultured rat pyramidal neurons. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2018.
  14. Khavinson VK, Kuznik BI, Lin'kova NS. Cortexin and its mechanisms of action. Adv Gerontol. 2014;27(4):626-634.
  15. Russian Federation State Register of Medicines. Cortexin — parent drug of Pinealon's EDR sequence; approved for TBI, stroke, cognitive indications.
  16. Khavinson V, Linkova N, Diatlova A, Trofimova S. Peptide Regulation of Cell Differentiation, Proliferation, and Apoptosis. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10(2):98-106.
  17. Khavinson VKh, Kuznik BI, Trofimova SV, Lin'kova NS. Cortexin and its short peptides AEDG and EDR modulate gene expression of proteins in pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Biomed Khim. 2020. (Parallel framework evidence for Khavinson short-peptide gene-expression paradigm.)
  18. Khavinson VKh, Malinin VV. Gerontological Aspects of Genome Peptide Regulation. Karger; Basel; 2005. DOI: 10.1159/isbn.978-3-318-01193-7. (Monograph; framework reference.)
  19. Bashkireva AS, Artamonova VG. [The peptide correction of neurotic disorders among professional truck-drivers]. Adv Gerontol. 2012;25(4):718-728. PMID: 23734521.
  20. Meshchaninov VN, Tkachenko EL, Zharkov SV, Gavrilov IV, Katyreva IuE. [Effect of synthetic peptides on aging of patients with chronic polymorbidity and organic brain syndrome of the central nervous system in remission]. Adv Gerontol. 2015;28(1):62-67. PMID: 26390612.
  21. Myakotnykh VS, Torgashov MN, Egorin KV, Meshchaninov VN, Gavrilov VI, Borovkova TA, Zvezdina EM, Verzhbitskaya TY, Tkachenko EL. [Comparative analysis of different methods of geroprotective]. Adv Gerontol. 2016;29(4):594-601. PMID: 28539017.
  22. Umnov RS, Lin'kova NS, Khavinson VKh. [Neuroprotective effects of peptides bioregulators in people of various age]. Adv Gerontol. 2013;26(4):671-678. PMID: 24738258.
  23. FDA. Bulk Drug Substances Nominated for Use in Compounding Under Section 503A of the FD&C Act (503A categories list), versions updated April 15, April 22 and May 14, 2026. fda.gov/media/94155/download. Read October 3, 2026. (Notice that 12 peptides would leave Category 2 because their nominations were withdrawn; their removal; GHK-Cu, except injectable, back in Category 1.)
  24. Khavinson VKh, Grigoriev EI, Malinin VV, Ryzhak GA. Method of improving the conditioned reflex habit, the muscle tonus, or the motion coordination of a patient after suffering trauma to the brain cortex. US Patent 8,524,674 B2; September 3, 2013 (from Russian patent RU 2301678 C1, filed May 30, 2006). patents.google.com/patent/US8524674B2. Read October 3, 2026. (The developers' patent on Pinealon, H-Glu-Asp-Arg-OH.)
  25. Viner IA, Terekhina RN, Trofimova SV, Trofimov AV. Assessment and bioregulating correction of reserves of adaptation of gymnasts to physically loadings. Uchenye zapiski universiteta imeni P.F. Lesgafta. 2012;7(89):29-33. DOI: 10.5930/issn.1994-4683.2012.07.89.p29-33. (In Russian.)

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Checked 13 Oct 2026